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发帖数: 1998 | 1 曼德润跟满鞑子木有几把毛的关系, 是葡萄牙人尊称明朝官员的用词
This one word encapsulates an entire colonial history. In the 16th century,
Portuguese explorers were among the first Europeans to reach China. Traders
and missionaries followed, settling into Macau on land leased from China’s
Ming dynasty rulers. The Portuguese called the Ming officials they met
mandarim, which comes from menteri in Malay and, before that, mantrī in
Sanskrit, both of which mean “minister” or “counselor.” It makes sense
that Portuguese would borrow from Malay; they were simultaneously colonizing
Malacca on the Malay peninsula.
For centuries, Europeans’ impressions of China filtered largely through the
Portuguese. The 16th-century Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci, for instance, was
Italian, but he arrived in China through Portuguese Macau. Following the
twisty logic of colonialism, when he attempted to transpose Chinese
characters into the Latin alphabet, he made use of both Italian and
Portuguese, comparing the sounds of individual characters to the sounds of
Portuguese and Italian words. Even today, “linguists go to town and try to
figure [out] what Chinese would have sounded like at the time,” says David
Moser, author of A Billion Voices: China’s Search for a Common Language. “
They could use as a clue the way Matteo Ricci wrote the Portuguese.”
Over time, the Portuguese coinage of “mandarin” took on other meanings.
The Ming dynasty officials wore yellow robes, which may be why “mandarin”
came to mean a type of citrus. “Mandarin” also lent its names to colorful
animals native to Asia but new to Europeans, like wasps and snakes and, of
course, ducks. And the language the Chinese officials spoke became “
Mandarin,” which is how the English name for the language more than 1
billion people in China speak still comes from Portuguese.
But words have a way of collecting just-so origin stories, and Chinese
speakers have sometimes retroactively given a Chinese origin to “mandarin,
” says Moser. It sounds similar enough to mandaren, a phrase that could
mean “important Manchurian.” The rulers of China’s last dynasty, the Qing
, were from Manchuria, so it make sense if you squint at it. “But it’s not
true,” says Moser. “Mandarin” has a distinctly non-Mandarin origin.
Read: Goodbye to all quack
“Mandarin” is what linguists call an exonym, an external name for a place,
people, or language. And exonyms often tell a history of how cultures met,
fought, and interacted. Many English names for continental European cities
derive not from the local language but from French—probably a legacy of the
Norman conquest of England. For example, English and French both use
Cologne for K?ln, Florence for Firenze, Prague for Praha, and Belgrade for
Beograd.
In other cases, says the lexicographer Grant Barrett, exonyms arise because
two places have a relationship that pre-dates current national boundaries.
For example, adds the linguist Anatoly Liberman, we use “Germany” from the
Latin Germania. In French, the name is Allemagne from a group of tribes
called the Alemanni; in Finnish, Saksa from the Saxons. Germany (Deutschland
in German) only became a unified country in 1871, long after other
Europeans had adopted their own names for the place, based on different
peoples who once lived there.
From the vantage point of English speakers, many of the exonyms for non-
European places and languages come filtered through the languages of former
colonial powers. Bombay and Ceylon, for example, also come from the
Portuguese, whose empire once sprawled through Asia. The names imposed by
colonial powers can be controversial, of course; Bombay and Ceylon have
since officially changed their names to Mumbai and Sri Lanka. The name “
Mandarin” still endures, perhaps because its origin is more obscure or
because China has enjoyed warmer relations with Portugal than with other
European countries. As for the mandarin ducks, they also live in Portugal
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