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发帖数: 25265 | 1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_signature
Electronic signature
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims
made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research
may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (August 2008
)
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide
view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on
the talk page. (December 2010)
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear
because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this
article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (July 2008)
An electronic signature is any electronic means that indicates that a person
adopts the contents of an electronic message. The U.S. Code defines an
electronic signature for the purpose of US law as "an electronic sound,
symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated with a contract or
other record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent to sign the
record."[1] It may be an electronic transmission of the document which
contains the signature, as in the case of facsimile transmissions, or it may
be encoded message, such as telegraphy using Morse code. By comparison, a
signature is a stylized script associated with a person. In commerce and the
law, a signature on a document is an indication that the person adopts the
intentions recorded in the document. Both are comparable to a seal.
Increasingly, encrypted digital signatures are used in e-commerce and in
regulatory filings as digital signatures are more secure than a simple
generic electronic signature.[2][3][4] The concept itself is not new, with
common law jurisdictions having recognized telegraph signatures as far back
as the mid-19th century and faxed signatures since the 1980s.
In many countries, including the United States, the European Union and
Australia, electronic signatures (when recognised under the law of each
jurisdiction) have the same legal consequences as the more traditional forms
of executing of documents.[5]
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Enforceability of electronic signatures
1.2 Legal definitions
1.3 Legal test of electronic signatures
1.4 Laws regarding use of electronic signatures
2 Pseudo-legal use of imputed electronic signatures
3 Cryptographic signatures
4 Digitally captured signatures
5 Biometric signatures
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
[edit] HistorySince well before the American Civil War began in 1861, morse
code was used to send messages electronically by telegraphy. Some of these
messages were agreements to terms that were intended as enforceable
contracts. An early acceptance of the enforceability of telegraphic messages
as electronic signatures came from the New Hampshire Supreme Court in 1869.
[6]
In the 1980s, many companies and even some individuals began using fax
machines for high-priority or time-sensitive delivery of documents. Although
the original signature on the original document was on paper, the image of
the signature and its transmission was electronic.[7]
Courts in various jurisdictions have decided that enforceable electronic
signatures can include agreements made by email, entering a personal
identification number (PIN) into a bank ATM, signing a credit or debit slip
with a digital pen pad device (an application of graphics tablet technology)
at a point of sale, installing software with a clickwrap software license
agreement on the package, and signing electronic documents online.[citation
needed]
The first agreement signed electronically by two sovereign nations was a
Joint Communiqué recognizing the growing importance of the promotion of
electronic commerce, signed by the United States and Ireland in 1998.[8]
[edit] Enforceability of electronic signaturesIn 1996 the United Nations
published the UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce.[9] The model law
was highly influential in the development of electronic signature laws
around the world, including in the US.[10]
In the United States, the definition of what qualifies as an electronic
signature is wide and is set out in the Uniform Electronic Transactions Act
("UETA") released by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform
State Laws (NCCUSL) in 1999.[11] It was influenced by ABA committee white
papers and the uniform law promulgated by NCCUSL. Under UETA, the term means
"an electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically
associated with a record and executed or adopted by a person with the intent
to sign the record." This definition and many other core concepts of UETA
are echoed in the U.S. ESign Act of 2000.[1] 47 US states, the District of
Columbia, and the US Virgin Islands have enacted UETA.[12] Only Illinois,
New York, and Washington State have not enacted UETA,[12], but each of those
states has adopted its own electronic signatures statute.[13][14][15]
Canadian law (PIPEDA) attempts to clarify the situation by first defining a
generic electronic signature as "a signature that consists of one or more
letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated
in, attached to or associated with an electronic document", then defining a
secure electronic signature as an electronic signature with specific
properties. PIPEDA's secure electronic signature regulations refine the
definition as being a digital signature applied and verified in a specific
manner.
In the European Union, the EU Directive on Electronic Signatures or the EU
Electronic Signatures Directive was published in the EC Official Journal, as
Directive 1999/93/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13
December 1999 on a Community framework for electronic signatures (OJ No L 13
p. 12 19/1/2000).[16]
[edit] Legal definitionsVarious laws have been passed internationally to
facilitate commerce by the use of electronic records and signatures in
interstate and foreign commerce. The intent is to ensure the validity and
legal effect of contracts entered into electronically. For instance,
PIPEDA definitions
(1) An electronic signature is "a signature that consists of one or more
letters, characters, numbers or other symbols in digital form incorporated
in, attached to or associated with an electronic document";
(2) A secure electronic signature is as an electronic signature that
(a) is unique to the person making the signature;
(b) the technology or process used to make the signature is under the sole
control of the person making the signature;
(c) the technology or process can be used to identify the person using the
technology or process; and
(d) the electronic signature can be linked with an electronic document in
such a way that it can be used to determine whether the electronic document
has been changed since the electronic signature was incorporated in,
attached to or associated with the electronic document.
ESIGN Act Sec 106 definitions
[17]
(2) ELECTRONIC- The term 'electronic' means relating to technology having
electrical, digital, magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or
similar capabilities.
(4) ELECTRONIC RECORD- The term 'electronic record' means a contract or
other record created, generated, sent, communicated, received, or stored by
electronic means.
(5) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE- The term 'electronic signature' means an
electronic sound, symbol, or process, attached to or logically associated
with a contract or other record and executed or adopted by a person with the
intent to sign the record.
GPEA Sec 1710 definitions
(1) ELECTRONIC SIGNATURE.—the term "electronic signature" means a method of
signing an electronic message that—
(A) identifies and authenticates a particular person as the source of the
electronic message; and
(B) indicates such person's approval of the information contained in the
electronic message.
UETA Sec 2 definitions
(5) "Electronic" means relating to technology having electrical, digital,
magnetic, wireless, optical, electromagnetic, or similar capabilities.
(6) "Electronic agent" means a computer program or an electronic or other
automated means used independently to initiate an action or respond to
electronic records or performances in whole or in part, without review or
action by an individual.
(7) "Electronic record" means a record created, generated, sent,
communicated, received, or stored by electronic means.
(8) "Electronic signature" means an electronic sound, symbol, or process
attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by
a person with the intent to sign the record.
Federal Reserve 12 CFR 202 definitions
refers to the ESIGN Act
Commodity Futures Trading Commission 17 CFR Part 1 Sec. 1.3 definitions
(tt) Electronic signature means an electronic sound, symbol, or process
attached to or logically associated with a record and executed or adopted by
a person with the intent to sign the record.
Food and Drug Administration 21 CFR Sec. 11.3 definitions
(5) Digital signature means an electronic signature based upon cryptographic
methods of originator authentication, computed by using a set of rules and
a set of parameters such that the identity of the signer and the integrity
of the data can be verified.
(7) Electronic signature means a computer data compilation of any symbol or
series of symbols executed, adopted, or authorized by an individual to be
the legally binding equivalent of the individual's handwritten signature.
[edit] Legal test of electronic signatures This section does not cite any
references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations
to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (
April 2010)
The purpose of the UETA and the federal ESIGN Act is to authorize the use of
electronic records and signatures. In other words, these laws answer the
question "is it a signature", but not the question "is it YOUR signature."
Most contract disputes are not related to the authenticity of signature or
the identity of the contracting parties, and so these laws have great
utility for a broad range of electronic contracting transactions, and allow
flexibility by permitting the type of electronic signature used to fit the
nature of the transaction. But in law, if a signature on a contract or other
document is contested, the signature must meet certain tests before a court
will uphold it. These requirements vary by jurisdiction, but various sorts
of signatures, some entirely electronic Telex addresses (for example, ABC
Company sends a Telex to XYZ Company making an offer at a particular price.
The offer was held to be binding when the "signature" was challenged.),
telegrams (for example, "I ACCEPT, SMITH" even though Smith never actually
touched the telegraph key), and faxes of documents, even in some cases where
the original was not signed by the sender.
In the case of Mehta v J Pereira Fernandes[18] the English High Court held
that
"if a party or a party's agent sending an e mail types his or her or his or
her principal's name to the extent required or permitted by existing case
law in the body of an e mail, then in my view that would be a sufficient
signature..."
Accordingly, it would appear that in English law any insertion of a name by
the purported signer or a natural person authorised by him constitutes a
signature but an automatically inserted email address does not.[19]
A central question in such cases is forgery and spoofing of assent, and in
these decisions, courts have held that forgery and spoofing can be in
practice ruled out.[citation needed] Nevertheless, it is easily possible,
for many electronic methods of signature, or imputed signature, to forge or
spoof assent. The rapidly rising problem of identity theft illustrates the
ease of such forgeries.
Often, businesses rely on other means to attempt to ensure an electronic
signature is correct, including talking with the signing person directly or
over the phone before an electronic signing, having an ongoing business
relationship, and receiving payment or other indications of intent to do
business that do not rely solely on a signed document. This is good business
practice even in the paper world, as forgeries have been common there since
time immemorial. Fraud is a common issue in all signature situations, and
neither type of signature (paper or electronic) provides fully effective
anti-fraud protections.
None of the electronic signatures in these examples are "digital signatures"
, as that term is commonly used, in that there is no cryptographic assertion
of the signer's identity, and no integrity check on the text received.
However, all are electronic signatures, and all have been found legally
binding in many different types of consumer, commercial and business
transactions. However, proving the authenticity of a digital signature in a
court of law may, in some circumstances, be easier than proving the validity
of other types of electronic signatures. The relative ease of proving
authenticity of a digital signature is dependent on the integrity of the
process for delivering the cryptographic key to the signer, and the extent
to which the signer has agreed, or is otherwise bound, to protect the key
and accept responsibility for its use.
[edit] Laws regarding use of electronic signaturesSee also: Digital
signatures and law
Canada - PIPEDA, its regulations, and the Canada Evidence Act.
China - Law of the People’s Republic of China on Electronic Signature (
effective April 1, 2005)
Costa Rica - Digital Signature Law 8454 (2005)
Croatia 2002, updated 2008
Czechia – Zákon o elektronickém podpisu 227/2000 Sb.
European Union - Electronic Signature Directive (1999/93/EC) - detailed
information on implementation within the EU is set out in the Digital
Signatures and the Law.
India - Information Technology Act
Ireland - Electronic Commerce Act 2000
Japan - Law Concerning Electronic Signatures and Certification Services,
2000
Mexico - E-Commerce Act [2000]
Peru - Ley Nº 27269. Ley de Firmas y Certificados Digitales (28MAY2000).
Philippines - Electronic Commerce Act of 2000
Poland - Ustawa o podpisie elektronicznym (Dziennik Ustaw z 2001 r. Nr 130
poz. 1450) [1]
Singapore - Singapore Electronic Transactions Act (1998)
Slovakia - Zákon č.215/2002 o elektronickom podpise
Slovenia Slovene Electronic Commerce and Electronic Signature Act
South Africa - The Electronic Communications and Transactions Act 25, 2002
Spain - Real Decreto-ley 14/1999, sobre firma electrónica
Republika Srpska (entity of the Bosnia and Herzegovina) 2005
Turkey - Electronic Signature Law
UK - s.7 Electronic Communications Act 2000
U.S. - Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act
U.S. - Uniform Electronic Transactions Act - adopted by 48 states
U.S. - Digital Signature And Electronic Authentication Law
U.S. - Government Paperwork Elimination Act (GPEA)
U.S. - The Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)
[edit] Pseudo-legal use of imputed electronic signatures This section does
not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (July 2008)
Some web sites and software EULAs contain terms that assert that various
electronic and other actions give rise to legally effective signatures. For
example, a web page might announce that, by accessing the site at all, you
have agreed to a certain set of terms and conditions. A software product
might assert, in its packaging or on an early installation screen, that by
using it you have agreed to licensing terms. These may or may not have been
discernible prior to sale, and may or may not be completely displayed even
at installation. Such licenses often include such restrictions as a
prohibition of reviewing the product for publication (electronic or
otherwise) without prior permission of the publisher/distributor, or
prohibition on studying the product (i.e., reverse engineering) for an
otherwise lawful purpose such as producing data files in a compatible format
. Some such claims would appear to be contrary to patent law (which requires
public disclosure as a condition of granting a patent) or to copyright law
which does the same for works available to the public, or to contract law
which requires informed knowing assent to reasonable contract terms as a
condition of enforceability in court. Only if all such covered matters are
trade secrets would many such clauses appear sustainable, but even so a
condition of trade secrecy is maintenance of the secret by the holder. This
may not be met in the case of a widely distributed product offered for sale
to anyone.
The legal status of such claims is uncertain. In the US, only two states
have adopted a new revision of the Uniform Commercial Code which authorize
such licensing restrictions, with disclosure after purchase. The validity of
such terms remains uncertain, despite the views of many EULA authors.
Analogies to the physical world in which contracts and signatures are
written, signed, and stored in tangible form suggest that analogous terms
would not be acceptable.
Courts in the UK have taken the view that online contracts are no different
to (a) offline ones or (b) ones made electronically at a distance by telex,
fax, or morse-code telegraphy, and accordingly can be valid subject to all
the usual contract principles: there must be offer, acceptance, contractual
intention and certainty as to terms. Contract terms must be available before
acceptance and the 1971 case of Thornton v Shoe Lane Parking Ltd where a
contract was entered into with a machine before terms were known (and
therefore those terms were not binding) is still good law. In any event any
contract is subject to tests of reasonableness (and in the case of contracts
with consumers, "fairness") under the Unfair Contract Terms Act and the
Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations. In addition under the
Electronic Commerce Regulations 2002 (SI 2002/2013) and Distance Selling
Regulations there are requirements to make the steps required to conclude
the contract clear, and rights to revoke contracts within certain periods
and subject to certain limits. Many of these laws and regulations arise from
EU Directives and Regulations so are broadly replicated throughout the
European Economic Area. Generally the courts have treated this more as a
matter of acceptance by conduct than signature.
[edit] Cryptographic signatures This section does not cite any references or
sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2008)
A diagram showing how a digital signature is applied and then verified.An
electronic signature may incorporate a digital signature if it uses
cryptographic methods to assure, at the least, both message integrity and
authenticity. For example, a proposed purchase order accepted by a vendor
and returned via email to the purchaser after being digitally signed. In
fact, in modern practice, a digital signature of some text is always
electronically processed in some sense, for the cryptographic mechanisms are
impracticable without computers. In theory however, this is not required.
Because of the use of message integrity mechanisms, any changes to a
digitally signed document will be readily detectable if tested for, and the
attached signature cannot then be taken as valid.
It is important to understand the cryptographic signatures are much more
than an error checking technique akin to checksum algorithms, or even high
reliability error detection and correction algorithms such as Reed-Solomon.
These can offer no assurance that the text has not been tampered with, as
all can be regenerated as needed by a tamperer. In addition, no message
integrity protocols include error correction, for to do so would destroy the
tampering detection feature.
Popular electronic signature standards include the OpenPGP standard
supported by PGP and GnuPG, and some of the S/MIME IETF standards. All
current cryptographic digital signature schemes require that the recipient
have a way to obtain the sender's public key with assurances of some kind
that the public key and sender identity properly belong together, and that
message integrity measures (also digital signatures) which assure that
neither the attestation nor the value of the public key can be
surreptitiously changed. A secure channel is not typically required.
A digitally signed text may also be encrypted for protection during
transmission, but this is not required when most digital signature protocols
have been properly carried out. Confidentiality requirements will be the
guiding consideration.
[edit] Digitally captured signatures This section does not cite any
references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations
to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July
2008)
An emerging form of electronic signatures is defined as “Biometric
Signature” or “Dynamic Signature”. The term stands for handwritten
signatures that are digitized throughout the writing process – including
static characteristics and biometric (dynamic) signals”. Instead of
replacing the handwritten signature these kind of e-signing solutions seek
to transfer the signing ceremony into the digital world. “Biometric
Signatures” require a hardware device for signature capturing and a
software which is able to combine the signature data, encrypt it and allows
to detect later manipulation by creating a hash value.
At the time when the first versions of electronic signature laws were
created in the mid 90s this sort of technology was almost unknown. In 1999
the European Directive about a framework for electronic signatures opened a
broader technological approach to electronic signatures. Law makers are
gradually reflecting “biometric signatures” now as well.
A lot of digitized signatures today are taken at a low resolution. One
example is the capture devices that courier services are using. They capture
a rather pixellated image of a signature that is usually not applicable for
a later verification. Signatures taken on these devices may easily be
claimed to be a forgery. Non-repudiation can only be achieved when the
biometric characteristics of a signature are captured too, and when this
information is securely bound to the signed document. The additional
verification of dynamic signals offers a higher level in security. A
signature with a similar image like the reference signature may be detected
as falsification because differences in their creation characteristics are
discovered.
In order to understand what is necessary to trust a signature it is
important to keep in mind that forensic experts rely on the holistic
analysis of signatures, i.e. they look at and take into account the paper
features, type of stylus, the ink flow and “visible” pressure. Most
forensic experts exposed to the analysis of dynamic signatures tend to
forget to apply the same principles. The equivalent holistic approach for
dynamic signatures must take into account which device was used for
signature capture, the device features and maybe even the signing
environment and the co-relations to the signing process.
Signatures may be digitized during the signing process instead of scanning
them from paper using a wide range of instruments: pen pads (with and
without LC display), special pens and Tablet PCs. They allow a gradual move
from paper-based documentation to electronic forms and straight-through-
processing as well as upgrading the quality of signature verification in
general. A proper comparison of static signature characteristics and dynamic
signature signals requires a digitizing instrument that is taking a
sufficient amount of time signals.
[edit] Biometric signatures This section does not cite any references or
sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2008)
Another approach is to attach some biometric measurement to a document as
evidence of signature. For instance, fingerprints, hand geometry (finger
lengths and palm size), iris patterns, or even retinal patterns. All of
these are collected using electronic sensors of some kind. Since each of
these physical characteristics has claims to uniqueness among humans, each
is to some extent useful as a signature method. Unfortunately, each is
easily spoofable by a replay of the electronic signal produced and submitted
to the computer system responsible for 'affixing' a signature to a document
. Wiretapping techniques often suffice. In the particular case of
fingerprints, a Japanese professor and some graduate students managed to
spoof all of the commercially available fingerprint readers available to
them with some ordinary kitchen chemistry (gummy bear candy gel) and a
little ingenuity. No actual fingers were needed to successfully spoof every
reading device.[20]
In addition, some German journalists at a CeBit conference were able to fool
several iris pattern scanners with improvised masks.
Biometric measurements of this type are useless as passwords, as they can't
be changed if compromised. However, they might be serviceable as electronic
signatures of a kind - except that, to date they have been so easily
spoofable that they can carry little assurance that the person who
purportedly signed a document was actually the person who did.
[edit] See alsoBrowse wrap
Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act (ESIGN)
Shrink wrap contract
Standard form contract
[edit] References1.^ a b US ESIGN Act of 2000
2.^ The University of Virginia
3.^ State of WI
4.^ National Archives of Australia
5.^ See US Federal Rules of Evidence 1001, 1002, and 1003. Federal Rules of
Evidence (LII 2006 ed.)
6.^ Singleton, S. (March 17, 1999). Privacy Issues In Federal Systems: A
Constitutional Perspective. Speech to National Institute of Standards and
Technology Computer System Security and Privacy Advisory Board Meeting. Cato
Institute.
7.^ The History of eSign
8.^ http://www.asil.org/ilib/ilib0104.htm#04 International Law in brief
9.^ Uncitral Law on Electronic Commerce (as amended in 1998)
10.^ >Gabriel, Henry. "The New United States Uniform Electronic Transactions
Act: Substantive Provisions, Drafting History and Comparison to the
UNCITRAL Model Law on Electronic Commerce". International Institute for the
Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT). http://www.unidroit.org/english/publications/review/articles/2000-4-gabriel-e.pdf. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
11.^ http://www.law.upenn.edu/bll/ulc/fnact99/1990s/ueta99.htm
12.^ a b http://www.nccusl.org/Update/uniformact_factsheets/uniformacts-fs-ueta.asp
13.^ http://www.cio.ny.gov/Policy/ESRA/esra.htm
14.^ http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=19.34
15.^ http://www.ilga.gov/legislation/ilcs/ilcs3.asp?ActID=89&ChapterID=2
16.^ Directive 1999/93/EC
17.^ Analysis of the ESIGN Act
18.^ Mehta v J Pereira Fernandes, EWHC 813 (Ch) (English High Court 2006).
Text
19.^ Abbiati, Paul (19 October 2006). "When can an email be accepted as an
official signature?". Supply Management.com. http://www.supplymanagement.com/law/court-reports/2006/mehta-v-j-pereira-fernandes-sa/. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
20.^ [|Matsumoto] (2002/01). "Impact of artificial gummy fingers on
fingerprint systems". Proceedings of SPIE. pp. 275-289. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.100.8172&rep=rep1&type=pdf.
[edit] Further reading This section may require cleaning up to meet
Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. The
talk page may contain suggestions. (May 2008) (Consider using more specific
clean up instructions.)
For books in English on electronic signatures, see:
Stephen Mason (2007). Electronic Signatures in Law (2nd ed.). Haywards Heath
Dennis Campbell (Ed.) (2005). E-Commerce and the Law of Digital Signatures.
Oceana Publications.
Lorna Brazell (2004). Electronic Signatures Law and Regulation. Sweet &
Maxwell.
SignatureConfirm (2007). Are Digital Signatures Legal?
M. H. M Schellenkens (2004). Electronic Signatures Authentication Technology
from a Legal Perspective. TMC Asser Press.
Jeremiah S. Buckley, John P. Kromer, Margo H. K. Tank, and R. David Whitaker
(2010). The Law of Electronic Signatures. 3rd Edition, West Publishing.
For journals on electronic signatures, see:
Stephen Mason (Ed.). Digital Evidence and Electronic Signature Law Review.
Includes translations of electronic signature cases from Europe, Brazil,
China and Colombia into English.
[edit] External links Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Legal and Regulatory Issues in the Information Economy
Introduction to cryptography from the PGP international website
OpenOffice Electronic Signatures and Security specification (OpenOffice
format), also in pdf format. Incorporates standards for document format and
XML Digital Signatures. Includes a comparison of document signature software
and features from Adobe (Acrobat), Microsoft (Word) and Mozilla.
E-Sign Final Report (2005, European Union)
21 CFR Part 11 Electronic Records; Electronic Signatures; Final Rule
Electronic Submissions; Establishment of Public Docket; Notice - as
published in the Federal Register / Vol. 62, No. 54 / Thursday, March 20,
1997
Judicial Studies Board Digital Signature Guidelines
Publication PHARMA IT: E-Signatures Set the Standard | h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 2 这个能不能给个summary?
比较关注
结论是electronic signature is legal or not?
Sorry I read too much info online today and my eyesight is going south :P
and what does this have to do with medical device? are you inventing
a biometric signature device? | s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 3 annex 11 was recently revised which means a tougher EU compliance.
research
2008
worldwide
【在 s**********8 的大作中提到】
: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_signature
: Electronic signature
: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
: may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims
: made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research
: may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (August 2008
: )
: The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide
: view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on
: the talk page. (December 2010)
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | | R**********s
发帖数: 4627 | 5 哈哈哈哈
笑死
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: 还有，能不能换个头像？
: 求你了。。。
| s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 6 21CFR part11 is US GMP compoent electronic signatures.
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: 这个能不能给个summary?
: 比较关注
: 结论是electronic signature is legal or not?
: Sorry I read too much info online today and my eyesight is going south :P
: and what does this have to do with medical device? are you inventing
: a biometric signature device?
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 7 i heard drug regulations are tougher in the EU. is it so?
【在 s**********8 的大作中提到】
: annex 11 was recently revised which means a tougher EU compliance.
:
: research
: 2008
: worldwide
| s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 8 no.
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: i heard drug regulations are tougher in the EU. is it so?
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 9 faint, when did u become a politician and do not give a straightforward
answer?
【在 s**********8 的大作中提到】
: 21CFR part11 is US GMP compoent electronic signatures.
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 10 :P
跟和小朋友说话似的，受不了了
【在 R**********s 的大作中提到】
: 哈哈哈哈
: 笑死
| | | s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 11 .... yes, it is important in health care industry.
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: faint, when did u become a politician and do not give a straightforward
: answer?
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 12 but you know what's worse?
美女头像.
hahaha
【在 R**********s 的大作中提到】
: 哈哈哈哈
: 笑死
| R**********s
发帖数: 4627 | 13 啊?!
难道你发现了我的秘密?
紧张ING
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: but you know what's worse?
: 美女头像.
: hahaha
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 14 lol
发个包子当封口费？
【在 R**********s 的大作中提到】
: 啊?!
: 难道你发现了我的秘密?
: 紧张ING
| h********e
发帖数: 2823 | 15 要不你和太尉对换头像吧
这样好玩
【在 R**********s 的大作中提到】
: 啊?!
: 难道你发现了我的秘密?
: 紧张ING
| s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 16 ....
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: 要不你和太尉对换头像吧
: 这样好玩
| m*******o
发帖数: 4179 | 17 electronic signature belongs to medical device?
I thought it would be something that IT dept is in charge of
research
2008
worldwide
【在 s**********8 的大作中提到】
: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_signature
: Electronic signature
: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
: may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims
: made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research
: may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (August 2008
: )
: The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide
: view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on
: the talk page. (December 2010)
| s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 18 it's required as long as computer system is invloved in manufacturing.
【在 m*******o 的大作中提到】
: electronic signature belongs to medical device?
: I thought it would be something that IT dept is in charge of
:
: research
: 2008
: worldwide
| s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 19 it's GMP requirment. not MD specific
【在 m*******o 的大作中提到】
: electronic signature belongs to medical device?
: I thought it would be something that IT dept is in charge of
:
: research
: 2008
: worldwide
| m*******o
发帖数: 4179 | 20 it is required in many places
【在 s**********8 的大作中提到】
: it's required as long as computer system is invloved in manufacturing.
| s**********8
发帖数: 25265 | 21 yes ah.
【在 m*******o 的大作中提到】
: it is required in many places
| f******w
发帖数: 10267 | 22 很多EMR（Electronic Medical Records）已经都承认electronic signature了。
【在 h********e 的大作中提到】
: 这个能不能给个summary?
: 比较关注
: 结论是electronic signature is legal or not?
: Sorry I read too much info online today and my eyesight is going south :P
: and what does this have to do with medical device? are you inventing
: a biometric signature device?
|
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